Hygroscopic refers to a substance that binds preferentially with water vapor molecules. Anyone who has used a salt shaker on a humid summer day understands- the salt clumps. The barrier to this method is the assumptions and uncertainties in such a project that would require extensive testing first.
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There has been some experimental work in trying to develop a liquid that when placed over the ocean surface would prevent evaporation from occurring. If this worked in the tropical cyclone environment, it would probably have a limiting effect on the intensity of the storm as it needs huge amounts of oceanic evaporation to continue to maintain its intensity (Simpson and Simpson 1966). However, finding a substance that would be able to stay together in the rough seas of a tropical cyclone proved to be the downfall of this idea.
The primary time of year for getting tropical cyclones is during the summer and autumn: July-October for the Northern Hemisphere and December-March for the Southern Hemisphere (though there are differences from basin to basin). The peak in summer/autumn is due to having all of the necessary ingredients become most favorable during this time of year: warm ocean waters (at least 26C or 80F), a tropical atmosphere that can quite easily kick off convection (i.e. thunderstorms), low vertical shear in the troposphere, and a substantial amount of large-scale spin available (either through the monsoon trough or easterly waves).
The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation, which transports ocean heat from the tropics to higher latitudes and can cause substantial climate swings in the Atlantic region and beyond as this circulation increases or decreases.
The American Meteorological Society (AMS) publishes the Monthly Weather Review which has annual summaries of Atlantic basin tropical cyclones, Atlantic basin tropical disturbances, and Northeast Pacific (east of 140W) basin tropical cyclones. These summaries have a substantial amount of data and analysis of the storms.
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE - the composite picture of the interchange of water substance between the earth, the atmosphere and the seas which includes the change of state and vertical and horizontal transport.
LATENT HEAT - the heat energy that must be absorbed when a substance changes from solid to liquid and liquid to gas, and which is released when a gas condenses and a liquid solidifies.
Beta was one of the most catastrophic hurricanes to hit New York (and the northeastern U.S. as a whole), with its Category 10 landfall causing exceptional destruction across the whole state. Wind gusts of up to 310 mph, equivalent to the sustained winds of the most powerful EF5 tornadoes, lifted entire high-rises off the ground, tore large chunks of earth and concrete into the air, and created waves up to 200 feet high as reported in areas across the coast of Long Island. New York City in particular, which was already hard-hit by hurricanes Nicholas and Sam, was completely eradicated. Every single building on Manhattan Island being torn to pieces and their debris littering miles of the surrounding waters which ruined local marine ecosystems. An immense storm surge up to 88 feet tall broke the record at the time for highest storm surge and flooded up to 34 miles inland, inundating millions of homes and businesses and triggering numerous road closures - several dozen counties experienced total transportation standstills due to severe flooding. By the time Beta passed, Long Island, Manhattan Island, and many areas of coastal mainland New York were permanently submerged much like what happened to Florida during Hypercane Heath. Due to the storm's immense size and slow movement, extreme rainfall occurred hundreds of miles inland with around a third of all U.S. states issuing flood warnings and a total of 192.48 inches of rain falling across the affected areas. Moisture from the storm fell as far south as the Bahamas and as far north as Nova Scotia while swells associated with Hypercane Beta were felt all the way in the Greater Antilles. A total of 10.9 million structures were damaged due to this, and Beta's flooding was considered the worst since Sam earlier in the year. Hundreds of mudslides also occurred along the slopes of the Appalachian Mountains which buried even more towns and blocked roads and freeways. Less severe, but still significant damage occurred in Eastern Canada, where Beta's remnants generated hurricane-force wind gusts and heavy rain. In all, Beta caused a shocking $1.33 trillion USD in damages. Thankfully, the near-total evacuation of New York and nearby states before storm kept the death toll less than that of Hypercane Nicholas, but was still extremely high at 2.26 million not counting the 3.01 million other deaths caused by UV radiation from ozone damage triggered by Beta's cloud tops reaching into the stratosphere. Beta's large wind field and subsequent cold wake also caused a stark decrease in storm activity that lasted until the end of August.
In Alabama, Kappa was responsible for bringing gale-force wind gusts and heavy rain, though it did not contribute too much damage since the areas affected were already levelled by Hypercane Iota just a day prior. Light rain was felt across the inland U.S. as Kappa's remnants moved north, causing minor, isolated flooding. In the Great Lakes area, Kappa caused record wind gusts and damage due to the historic nature of the storm. Winds of over 100 mph and severe flooding were recorded across Wisconsin and Michigan along with large waves close to the coast. In Wisconsin, heavy downpours caused flooding in numerous parts of Milwaukee, causing road closures and traffic delays while the hurricane's winds tore away at roofs and windows. Numerous trees were downed as well. Meanwhile, Michigan received stronger winds which were enough to blow away some roofs entirely and cause minor but visible wall damage including the total collapse of a few mobile homes. In addition, downed trees and tree branches caused additional structural damage. Like in Wisconsin, flooding was felt across the state and triggered road closures. Agricultural losses were substantial, with an estimated $140 million in crop damage. 45 thousand structures were damaged in the Great Lakes region alone while 3.7 million residents reported losing power due to Kappa's stormy conditions. Outside of the Great Lakes, Kappa's remnant extratropical cyclone caused squally conditions across the rest of the northeastern United States and parts of eastern Canada. In total, the storm was responsible for $8.2 billion in 2027 USD and 12 deaths.
An area of convection was spotted heading northwest off the coast of the Yucatan Peninsula on October 30. Though its thunderstorms were strong and well-developed, the system's lack of a central circulation prevented it from being upgraded into a tropical cyclone. By 21:00 UTC on October 31, recon planes flew into the storm and detected a low-level circulation at the center of the storm, resulting in it being designated Tropical Depression Seventy-Eight. After its formation, the depression continued to strengthen under favorable environmental conditions, becoming a tropical storm at 07:00 UTC on November 1 and receiving the name He. At 15:20 UTC that day, the storm made landfall near Punta Allen in the Yucatan Peninsula, halting further strengthening. He lost convection and became disorganized over land, weakening into a depression at 19:00 UTC on the 1st, but nonetheless emerged into the Gulf of Mexico the next day while still maintaining tropical characteristics. Not long after re-entering open waters, He regained tropical storm status at 14:00 UTC on November 2 as convection in the northwest began organizing into rain bands. The next day, very favorable conditions allowed He's structure to quickly improve, with the storm becoming a hurricane at 01:00 UTC on November 3 and a major hurricane at 12:00 UTC that day. He was subsequently upgraded into Category 4 status by the end of the day, having undergone rapid deepening and having developed a large, well-defined eye. Around 03:00 UTC on November 4, He reached its peak intensity as a low-end Category 4 before making landfall on Lechuguillas, Veracruz as a strong Category 3 at 11:00 UTC. Over land, Hurricane He explosively weakened due to the mountainous terrain of Mexico, being downgraded into a remnant low less than 18 hours after landfall.
Samech's remnants continued northwest into the Bay of Campeche, where warm waters, moist air, and relatively low wind shear allowed the system to began to re-organize into a tropical cyclone. By midday on November 25, significant amounts of organized convection had developed in the vicinity of the system, leading to the NHC to upgrade Samech back into a tropical depression at 17:00 UTC that day. At 13:00 UTC on November 26, the depression intensified back into a tropical storm and began to undergo rapid intensification, however its subsequent landfall on Tamaulipas, Mexico at 04:00 UTC on November 27 prevented it from exceeding its initial peak intensity. Over land, land interaction as well as dry air quickly weakened Samech. Not long before midnight that day, Samech degenerated into a trough which soon merged with a larger frontal system. Significant flooding occurred in Belize as well as other parts of the Yucatan Peninsula, forcing several businesses in Belize City to close and causing the deaths of 7 of its residents. Gusty winds exceeding hurricane force ripped down tree branches and caused minor roof damage. In Northern Mexico and parts of southern Texas, the tropical storm's landfall resulted in similar damage and 5 addition fatalities. In total, the storm caused $126 million in economic losses and 12 deaths.
On November 26, an area of deep convection formed roughly 200 miles (322 kilometers) north of Puerto Rico. Due to overall favorable conditions for tropical cyclone development, the system began to form a central circulation while its convection only increased in organization. By 20:00 UTC that day, the NHC had initiated advisories on Tropical Depression Ninety. As the system turned northwest, warm waters and low wind shear allowed Ninety to intensify, becoming Tropical Storm Ayin at 19:00 UTC on November 27. Strengthening continued with Ayin's subsequent upgrade to hurricane status at 14:00 UTC the next day as it developed well-defined spiral rainbands and a symmetrical central dense overcast. On November 29, Ayin began to rapidly intensify and quickly gained major hurricane status at 08:00 UTC that day at the same time as the appearance of a clear eye on radar. After reaching Category 4 strength at 12:00 UTC, however, Ayin began to level out in intensity due to an eyewall replacement cycle. The storm resumed strengthening the next day, becoming a Category 5 at 13:00 UTC on November 30. Eventually, the hurricane made landfall on the sunken remains of Florida at around 13:30 UTC on December 1; despite most of the land being underwater, Ayin weakened nonetheless into a Category 3 as it emerged into the Gulf of Mexico roughly ten hours later. The storm began to re-intensify some hours later as it turned north towards the Bay of Alabama, where NHC instruments had recorded sea surface temperatures of over 90 degrees Fahrenheit (30 degrees Celsius). There, Ayin rapidly intensified to a peak of 180 mph (295 km/h) and 903 mbar at 16:00 UTC on December 3, making it a high-end Category 5 on the SSHWS. A few hours later, Ayin made landfall on the sunken remains of the Florida Panhandle. Over land, Ayin's satellite appearance rapidly deteriorated as it quickly weakened. By 07:00 UTC on December 5, the storm had become indistinguishable from the surrounding environment, causing the NHC to cease advisories shortly after. Due to the areas it affected already being severely damaged by other storms such as hypercanes Heath, Iota, and Mu, Ayin resulted in relatively minor damage with $9.3 billion in economic losses and 9 fatalities. 2ff7e9595c
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